Chapter Three: The ‘friend-enemy’ relationship and the definition of Sovereignty in The Book of the New Sun
THE 'FRIEND-ENEMY' RELATIONSHIP AND THE DEFINITION OF SOVEREIGNTY IN THE BOOK OF THE NEW SUN
The Book of the New Sun is analogous to the chapter ‘The Definition of Sovereignty’ from Political Theology in that both define a political argument for absolute sovereignty. In addition, sovereignty is discussed in The Book of the New Sun in the context of a political state described in terms that correspond with the ‘friend-enemy’ thesis of The Concept of the Political. The narrator of The Book of the New Sun, Severian, describes the Commonwealth as made up of largely autonomous institutions in a permanent state of exception ruled by an absolute sovereign, the Autarch. The people of the Commonwealth and the Autarch operate within possibilities the ‘friend-enemy’ political relationship provides for political struggle and order.
In the portrayal of the Commonwealth Wolfe creates a fictional representation of a key concept from The Concept of the Political, a treatise composed by Schmitt four years after Political Theology. Schmitt’s ‘friend-enemy’ thesis from The Concept of the Political is essential for understanding the concepts of sovereignty in The Book of the New Sun. In The Concept of the Political, Schmitt proposed that the liberal democratic political state operated in a manner he called the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship. The ‘friend-enemy’ thesis stated that,
The Commonwealth embodies the ‘friend-enemy’ thesis, but alongside this depiction of politics Wolfe discusses the nature of the sovereign power that is required to decide when the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship is escalating to threaten the state. It is this discussion of sovereignty that is markedly similar to Political Theology, in which Schmitt argued that the rule of law governs the politics of the liberal democratic state, but the law adjudicated the norm and not the exception. According to Schmitt the norm was,
When introducing Severian and the Guild of Torturers, and documenting Severian’s fall from grace, Wolfe describes the bureaucratic, governing and radical bodies that make up the Commonwealth and influence its order and security: the exultants, the Autarch, his legions, the Guild and the Vodalarii. According to Schmitt,
Severian’s description of politics within the Commonwealth describes institutions that appear to exercise power with only distant control by the Autarch; he observes that ‘now I have travelled much farther from our tower … I have found that the pattern of our guild is repeated …in the societies of every trade.’(123) Critics have suggested that the Autarch has only limited control of the chaotic institutions of the Commonwealth, Joan Gordon observing that ‘most of the government operates independently of the Autarch.’(124) The Autarch himself, when handing over his position to Severian, claims that he masquerades as several minor officials of the bureaucracy so as to wield the power they hold as well as his own.(125) The Commonwealth embodies Schmitt’s concept of the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship, with politicised institutions creating a state ‘as a means of continuing, organizing and channelling the political struggle.’(126) The Commonwealth is just such a chaotic organization of political entities and the Autarch is the sovereign Schmitt envisaged to rule when the exception, internal turmoil that disrupts the laws created and enforced by these institutions.
The Book of the New Sun holds a further translation of the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship that informs the discussion of sovereignty. The Commonwealth includes a party in revolution against the Autarch, the Vodalarii headed by the exultant Vodalus. When in the second chapter Severian aids Vodalus in a short fight, he confesses that he was one of the Vodalarii because ‘with him I hated the Autarchy, though I had no notion of what might replace it … with him I despised the exultants who failed to rise against the Autarch … with him I detested the people for their lack of discipline and a common purpose.’(127) Still politically inexperienced, Severian makes the mistake of conceiving of the many institutions of the Commonwealth as ruled inefficiently by the Autarch, not as independent political bodies, and his youthful idealism therefore inclines him to sympathise with revolutionary Vodalarii and seek the overthrow of the Autarch. When finally in the presence of the Autarch he is assured that, to the contrary, ‘the Autarch protects the people from the exultants, and the exultants … shelter them from the Autarch.’(128) At the end of The Book of the New Sun the Autarch is revealed to be the adjudicator of politics, becoming Schmitt’s absolute sovereign who ‘decides whether there is an extreme emergency as well as what must be done to eliminate it.’(129)
Wolfe creates an unusual ‘friend-enemy’ relationship for the Autarch and his opponent. Hirst describes Schmitt’s ‘friend-enemy’ relations as when ‘the political comes into being when groups are placed in a relation of enmity, where each comes to perceive the other as an irreconcilable adversary to be fought and, if possible, defeated.’(13) Vodalus and the Autarch are adversaries, but neither exists without the other. Severian encounters the Autarch in disguise twice before their final meeting in the text, during which the following exchange takes place,
Wolfe is committed to the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship between the Autarch and an opponent, for when Severian becomes Autarch his nemesis, Agia, takes over Vodalus’ role.(135) Severian and Agia meet on Severian’s second day of exile and from the very moment of meeting she is his singular enemy; by turns seducing him, swindling him and framing him. Once Severian executes her similarly antagonistic brother Agilus, she pursues Severian with all means at her disposal and even ensures that Severian is saved from death at other’s hands so she alone may secure his demise. Agia allies with Vodalus to kill the old Autarch, but rescues Severian only hours after he becomes the new Autarch. Severian confronts her with her alliance with Vodalus and asks,
For there is one more aspect of Wolfe’s conception of the Commonwealth and the position of the Autarch in terms of the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship that enables the discussion of sovereignty in The Book of the New Sun. Hirst’s interpretation of Schmitt posits that ‘internal order is imposed to pursue external conflict,’(137) and while the role of the Autarch is to mediate between the populace and the exultants and ensure that the struggling politicised institutions within the state maintain equilibrium, the Autarch also mediates between the Commonwealth and the two other political entities associated with the Urth, the Ascians and the Hierodules. The Autarch conducts the interminable war against the Ascians, maintaining the Commonwealth’s freedom from the hostile interstellar powers of Abaia and Erebus who control the Ascians. He also stands as ambassador to the Hierodules to keep them from the populace of the Commonwealth. In the case of Ascia the Autarch does indeed wage a war that unites the populace, but the Commonwealth seems to be waging a defensive war. The Commonwealth’s relationship with the Hierodules is by contrast not one of war. The struggle of the Autarch against the exultants, the Vodalarii and the external and interstellar powers to protect the populace becomes the perfect political landscape for Schmitt’s concept of an absolute sovereign. The exultants and Vodalarii ensure the populace have the freedom to rule in the norm through institutions mostly free of the Autarch’s influence, but the Autarch can curb any move the populace makes towards disturbance in the exception, and in addition ensures international and interstellar ‘friend-enemy’ relations also remain stable.
Finally, Schmitt’s conception of ‘friend-enemy’ relations and Wolfe’s portrayal of the Commonwealth as the embodiment of this relationship brings both to the question of the decision in the exception. The result of the ‘friend-enemy’ state is that when the exception inevitably arrives decision, not discussion, is required,(138) and the sovereign is who decides in the exception.(139) Schmitt’s sovereign is essential so the norm can be defined against the exception and a decision on the exception does not destabilise the state. Schmitt wrote,
Exiled from the Guild for contravening its rules, Severian travels through the teeming streets of Nessus for the first time and within a few hours he is detained by the City Watch for causing terror in the general populace. He is taken to the captain, or lochage, of the Watch, and is required to at least obscure the more unmistakable elements of the clothing to which he is entitled; the cloak, mask and sword of the Torturer. A brief exchange between the lochage and Severian brings the text to the first discussion of the need for absolute sovereignty. As Severian narrates,
The Book of the New Sun begins with an explication of the ‘friend-enemy’ political system of The Concept of the Political, in which the narrator, Severian, becomes the absolute sovereign as outlined in ‘The Definition of Sovereignty’ in Political Theology. When exiled from his Guild to Thrax, Severian first enters the ‘friend-enemy’ relations of the political system of the Commonwealth and begins to convey in his person the arguments for absolute sovereignty. Wolfe sets Severian on his journey to the Phoenix Throne, ensuring that when a question of sovereignty arises, Severian, as the embodiment of sovereignty within the text, argues for his own existence.
CHAPTER TWO: CARL SCHMITT, POLITICAL THEOLOGY AND THE CONCEPT OF THE POLITICAL
CHAPTER FOUR: THE PROBLEM OF SOVEREIGNTY AS THE PROBLEM OF THE LEGAL FORM AND THE DECISION IN THE BOOK OF THE NEW SUN
NOTES
(113) C. Schmitt, Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty, Schwab, G. (trans), Cambridge Mass., MIT Press, 1985, pp. 5-7.
(114) C. Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, Schwab, G. (trans), Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 37.
(115) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(116) Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, p. 26.
(117) J. W. Bendersky, Carl Schmitt: Theorist for the Reich, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1983, p. 90.
(118) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 6.
(119) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 5.
(120) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 7.
(121) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 10.
(122) Wolfe, Shadow and Claw, p. 23.
(123) Wolfe, Shadow and Claw, p. 42.
(124) Gordon, ‘The Book of the New Sun’, Gene Wolfe, p. 87.
(125) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 491.
(126) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(127) Wolfe, Shadow and Claw, p. 17.
(128) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 534.
(129) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 7.
(130) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(131) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, pp. 490-491.
(132) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 491.
(133) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 492.
(134) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 24.
(135) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 606.
(136) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, pp. 538-539.
(137) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(138) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(139) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 5.
(140) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 13.
(141) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 12.
(142) Wolfe, Shadow and Claw, p. 134.
Sovereign is he who decides in the exception … it is precisely the exception that makes relevant the subject of sovereignty, that is, the whole question of sovereignty. The precise details of an emergency cannot be anticipated, nor can one spell out what may take place in such a case, especially when it is a matter of extreme emergency and of how it can be eliminated. The precondition as well as the content of jurisdictional competence in such a case must necessarily be unlimited. From the liberal constitutional point of view, there would be no jurisdictional competence at all … all tendencies of modern constitutional development point towards eliminating the sovereign in this sense.(113)
POLITICAL THEOLOGY: FOUR CHAPTERS ON THE CONCEPT OF SOVEREIGNTY
CARL SCHMITT
The Book of the New Sun is analogous to the chapter ‘The Definition of Sovereignty’ from Political Theology in that both define a political argument for absolute sovereignty. In addition, sovereignty is discussed in The Book of the New Sun in the context of a political state described in terms that correspond with the ‘friend-enemy’ thesis of The Concept of the Political. The narrator of The Book of the New Sun, Severian, describes the Commonwealth as made up of largely autonomous institutions in a permanent state of exception ruled by an absolute sovereign, the Autarch. The people of the Commonwealth and the Autarch operate within possibilities the ‘friend-enemy’ political relationship provides for political struggle and order.
In the portrayal of the Commonwealth Wolfe creates a fictional representation of a key concept from The Concept of the Political, a treatise composed by Schmitt four years after Political Theology. Schmitt’s ‘friend-enemy’ thesis from The Concept of the Political is essential for understanding the concepts of sovereignty in The Book of the New Sun. In The Concept of the Political, Schmitt proposed that the liberal democratic political state operated in a manner he called the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship. The ‘friend-enemy’ thesis stated that,
every religious, moral, economic, ethical or other antithesis transforms itself into a political one if it is sufficiently strong to group human beings effectively according to friends and enemies.(114)According to Schmitt the political state was not based on consensus but enmity, and politics was the expression of struggle between political entities.(115) The ‘friend-enemy’ relationship did not, however, entail hostility leading to violence, but described a ‘degree of intensity of a union or separation, of an association or disassociation’ between politicised sections of society.(116) Domestically the state is required to assure stability via legal norms and laws so the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship does not lead to armed struggle.(117) An alternative to maintaining the stability of the state by law is to pursue external conflict in order to create a ‘friend-enemy’ relationship with other states, and the Commonwealth, as portrayed by Wolfe, is in a permanent state of external conflict with the Ascian state.
The Commonwealth embodies the ‘friend-enemy’ thesis, but alongside this depiction of politics Wolfe discusses the nature of the sovereign power that is required to decide when the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship is escalating to threaten the state. It is this discussion of sovereignty that is markedly similar to Political Theology, in which Schmitt argued that the rule of law governs the politics of the liberal democratic state, but the law adjudicated the norm and not the exception. According to Schmitt the norm was,
the normal, everyday frame of life to which it can be factually applied and which is subject to its regulations.True sovereignty is in the hands of those who decide in the exception, for the law does not encompass all possible situations, and a decision in the exception must therefore rest outside the law. Schmitt explained,
because a general norm, as represented by an ordinary legal prescription, can never encompass a total exception … the exception, which is not codified in the existing legal order … cannot be circumscribed factually and made to conform to a preformed law.(118)An exception is inevitable in a political state, as Schmitt maintained,
it will soon be clear that the exception is to be understood to refer to a general concept in the theory of state, not merely to a construct applied to any emergency decree or state of siege.(119)Finally, there is a requirement for a sovereign power to rule in the exception, described as follows,
although he stands outside the normally valid legal system, he nevertheless belongs to it, for it is he who must decide whether the constitution needs to be suspended in its entirety.(120)Wolfe creates in The Book of the New Sun a fictional representation of a state made up of political groups operating along the lines of Schmitt’s ‘friend-enemy’ relationship, and then discusses the tension between the norm and the exception in politics, and the absolute sovereignty Schmitt believed was required to rule such a political state in the exception.
When introducing Severian and the Guild of Torturers, and documenting Severian’s fall from grace, Wolfe describes the bureaucratic, governing and radical bodies that make up the Commonwealth and influence its order and security: the exultants, the Autarch, his legions, the Guild and the Vodalarii. According to Schmitt,
Public order and security manifest themselves very differently in reality, depending on whether a militaristic bureaucracy, a self-governing body controlled by the spirit of commercialism, or a radical party organization decides when there is order and security and when it is threatened or disturbed.(121)Severian describes the Guild ‘as a focus for the hatred of the people, drawing it from the Autarch, the exultants, and the army.’(122) The Guild executes the orders of the Autarch through his representatives - the exultants of the upper bureaucracy and aristocracy, appointed governors and the vast army active on a constant battlefront with Ascia. The Guild is the agent of the judiciary in the text, but it takes its place alongside many institutions administering laws within the Commonwealth.
Severian’s description of politics within the Commonwealth describes institutions that appear to exercise power with only distant control by the Autarch; he observes that ‘now I have travelled much farther from our tower … I have found that the pattern of our guild is repeated …in the societies of every trade.’(123) Critics have suggested that the Autarch has only limited control of the chaotic institutions of the Commonwealth, Joan Gordon observing that ‘most of the government operates independently of the Autarch.’(124) The Autarch himself, when handing over his position to Severian, claims that he masquerades as several minor officials of the bureaucracy so as to wield the power they hold as well as his own.(125) The Commonwealth embodies Schmitt’s concept of the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship, with politicised institutions creating a state ‘as a means of continuing, organizing and channelling the political struggle.’(126) The Commonwealth is just such a chaotic organization of political entities and the Autarch is the sovereign Schmitt envisaged to rule when the exception, internal turmoil that disrupts the laws created and enforced by these institutions.
The Book of the New Sun holds a further translation of the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship that informs the discussion of sovereignty. The Commonwealth includes a party in revolution against the Autarch, the Vodalarii headed by the exultant Vodalus. When in the second chapter Severian aids Vodalus in a short fight, he confesses that he was one of the Vodalarii because ‘with him I hated the Autarchy, though I had no notion of what might replace it … with him I despised the exultants who failed to rise against the Autarch … with him I detested the people for their lack of discipline and a common purpose.’(127) Still politically inexperienced, Severian makes the mistake of conceiving of the many institutions of the Commonwealth as ruled inefficiently by the Autarch, not as independent political bodies, and his youthful idealism therefore inclines him to sympathise with revolutionary Vodalarii and seek the overthrow of the Autarch. When finally in the presence of the Autarch he is assured that, to the contrary, ‘the Autarch protects the people from the exultants, and the exultants … shelter them from the Autarch.’(128) At the end of The Book of the New Sun the Autarch is revealed to be the adjudicator of politics, becoming Schmitt’s absolute sovereign who ‘decides whether there is an extreme emergency as well as what must be done to eliminate it.’(129)
Wolfe creates an unusual ‘friend-enemy’ relationship for the Autarch and his opponent. Hirst describes Schmitt’s ‘friend-enemy’ relations as when ‘the political comes into being when groups are placed in a relation of enmity, where each comes to perceive the other as an irreconcilable adversary to be fought and, if possible, defeated.’(13) Vodalus and the Autarch are adversaries, but neither exists without the other. Severian encounters the Autarch in disguise twice before their final meeting in the text, during which the following exchange takes place,
“Before I lost consciousness, I heard you say you are the Autarch.”It is the second meeting in the Autarch’s palace, the House Absolute, which causes Severian panic, because he met this same minor official of the court on the understanding that both were emissaries of Vodalus.(132) The Autarch masquerades as an agent of his opponent to ensure that he keeps ‘in touch with the underside of the population, so I know whether or not taxes are really being collected and whether they’re thought fair, which elements are rising in society and which are going down.’(133) This habit of the Autarch parallels Schmitt’s summary of Otto von Gierke’s notion of the state in Political Philosophy, ‘the will of the state or the sovereign is not the final source of law but is the organ of the people convoked to express legal consciousness as it emerges from the life of the people.’(134) The Autarch takes very seriously the task of being aware of when the political masses are heading towards disruption, and tolerating his political opponent, even collaborating with him, ensures that he is involved in the political struggle that makes up the voice of the people.
He threw himself down beside me like a child, his body making a distinct sound as it struck the piled carpets. “I did. I am. Are you impressed?”
“I would be more impressed,” I said, “if I did not recall you so vividly from our meeting in the House Azure … [and] when I met you in the House Absolute you appeared to be a minor official of the court.”(131)
Wolfe is committed to the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship between the Autarch and an opponent, for when Severian becomes Autarch his nemesis, Agia, takes over Vodalus’ role.(135) Severian and Agia meet on Severian’s second day of exile and from the very moment of meeting she is his singular enemy; by turns seducing him, swindling him and framing him. Once Severian executes her similarly antagonistic brother Agilus, she pursues Severian with all means at her disposal and even ensures that Severian is saved from death at other’s hands so she alone may secure his demise. Agia allies with Vodalus to kill the old Autarch, but rescues Severian only hours after he becomes the new Autarch. Severian confronts her with her alliance with Vodalus and asks,
“You’re taking me back to him?”Although Severian’s subsequent political relationship with Agia is not documented in the text, Wolfe clearly considers the position of Autarch to require an opponent, an enemy that ensures that Schmitt’s politics of confrontation keeps the Commonwealth in a permanent state of exception.
She shook her head … “Vodalus is dead … now I will let you go free – because I have some inkling of where you will go – and in the end you will come back to my hands again.”
“You are rescuing me because you hate me then,” I said, and she nodded. Vodalus, I suppose, had hated that part of me that had been the Autarch in the same way. Or rather, he had hated his conception of the Autarch.(136)
For there is one more aspect of Wolfe’s conception of the Commonwealth and the position of the Autarch in terms of the ‘friend-enemy’ relationship that enables the discussion of sovereignty in The Book of the New Sun. Hirst’s interpretation of Schmitt posits that ‘internal order is imposed to pursue external conflict,’(137) and while the role of the Autarch is to mediate between the populace and the exultants and ensure that the struggling politicised institutions within the state maintain equilibrium, the Autarch also mediates between the Commonwealth and the two other political entities associated with the Urth, the Ascians and the Hierodules. The Autarch conducts the interminable war against the Ascians, maintaining the Commonwealth’s freedom from the hostile interstellar powers of Abaia and Erebus who control the Ascians. He also stands as ambassador to the Hierodules to keep them from the populace of the Commonwealth. In the case of Ascia the Autarch does indeed wage a war that unites the populace, but the Commonwealth seems to be waging a defensive war. The Commonwealth’s relationship with the Hierodules is by contrast not one of war. The struggle of the Autarch against the exultants, the Vodalarii and the external and interstellar powers to protect the populace becomes the perfect political landscape for Schmitt’s concept of an absolute sovereign. The exultants and Vodalarii ensure the populace have the freedom to rule in the norm through institutions mostly free of the Autarch’s influence, but the Autarch can curb any move the populace makes towards disturbance in the exception, and in addition ensures international and interstellar ‘friend-enemy’ relations also remain stable.
Finally, Schmitt’s conception of ‘friend-enemy’ relations and Wolfe’s portrayal of the Commonwealth as the embodiment of this relationship brings both to the question of the decision in the exception. The result of the ‘friend-enemy’ state is that when the exception inevitably arrives decision, not discussion, is required,(138) and the sovereign is who decides in the exception.(139) Schmitt’s sovereign is essential so the norm can be defined against the exception and a decision on the exception does not destabilise the state. Schmitt wrote,
for a legal orders to makes sense, a normal situation must exist, and he is sovereign who definitely decides whether this normal situation actually exists.(140)Once the sovereign decides that the situation is an exception, a decision must be made, government is suspended, order is in the hands of the sovereign and the sovereign is the state. Schmitt again,
because the exception is different from anarchy and chaos, order in the juristic sense still prevails even if it is not of the ordinary kind. The existence of the state is undoubtable proof of its superiority over the validity of the legal norm. The state suspends the law in the exception on the basis of its right of self-preservation … the exception remains, nevertheless, accessible to jurisprudence because both elements, the norm as well as the decision, remain within the framework of the juristic.(141)It is the example of the sovereign ensuring stability while deciding on the exception that introduces the reader to the extended discussion of sovereignty within The Book of the New Sun embodies in Severian.
Exiled from the Guild for contravening its rules, Severian travels through the teeming streets of Nessus for the first time and within a few hours he is detained by the City Watch for causing terror in the general populace. He is taken to the captain, or lochage, of the Watch, and is required to at least obscure the more unmistakable elements of the clothing to which he is entitled; the cloak, mask and sword of the Torturer. A brief exchange between the lochage and Severian brings the text to the first discussion of the need for absolute sovereignty. As Severian narrates,
The lochage slid from his stool and strode to the window overlooking the bridge. “How many people do you think there are in Nessus?”The lochage is charged with maintaining peace in a large population and believes preserving the norm will ensure peace. On the other hand, Severian is beginning to grasp the fact that disturbances are inevitable in large political systems, and that an exception to the legal norm is not a state of emergency to eliminate, but a natural occurrence that requires a sovereign to make a decision. It is when in conversation with the lochage that Wolfe begins to embody in Severian Schmitt’s arguments for absolute sovereignty, the power that even in the exception prevents chaos from erupting.
“I have no idea.”
“No more do I, Torturer. No more does anyone. Every attempt to count them has failed, as has every attempt to tax them systematically … Among such a throng, there is no alternative to peace. Disturbances cannot be tolerated, because disturbances cannot be extinguished.”
“There is the alternative of order. But yes, until that is achieved, I understand.”(142)
The Book of the New Sun begins with an explication of the ‘friend-enemy’ political system of The Concept of the Political, in which the narrator, Severian, becomes the absolute sovereign as outlined in ‘The Definition of Sovereignty’ in Political Theology. When exiled from his Guild to Thrax, Severian first enters the ‘friend-enemy’ relations of the political system of the Commonwealth and begins to convey in his person the arguments for absolute sovereignty. Wolfe sets Severian on his journey to the Phoenix Throne, ensuring that when a question of sovereignty arises, Severian, as the embodiment of sovereignty within the text, argues for his own existence.
CHAPTER TWO: CARL SCHMITT, POLITICAL THEOLOGY AND THE CONCEPT OF THE POLITICAL
CHAPTER FOUR: THE PROBLEM OF SOVEREIGNTY AS THE PROBLEM OF THE LEGAL FORM AND THE DECISION IN THE BOOK OF THE NEW SUN
NOTES
(113) C. Schmitt, Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty, Schwab, G. (trans), Cambridge Mass., MIT Press, 1985, pp. 5-7.
(114) C. Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, Schwab, G. (trans), Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 37.
(115) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(116) Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, p. 26.
(117) J. W. Bendersky, Carl Schmitt: Theorist for the Reich, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1983, p. 90.
(118) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 6.
(119) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 5.
(120) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 7.
(121) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 10.
(122) Wolfe, Shadow and Claw, p. 23.
(123) Wolfe, Shadow and Claw, p. 42.
(124) Gordon, ‘The Book of the New Sun’, Gene Wolfe, p. 87.
(125) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 491.
(126) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(127) Wolfe, Shadow and Claw, p. 17.
(128) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 534.
(129) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 7.
(130) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(131) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, pp. 490-491.
(132) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 491.
(133) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 492.
(134) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 24.
(135) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, p. 606.
(136) Wolfe, Sword and Citadel, pp. 538-539.
(137) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(138) Hirst, ‘Carl Schmitt’s Decisionism’, The Challenge of Carl Schmitt, p. 9.
(139) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 5.
(140) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 13.
(141) Schmitt, Political Theology, p. 12.
(142) Wolfe, Shadow and Claw, p. 134.
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